Neural correlates of transfer of learning in motor coordination tasks: role of inhibitory and excitatory neurometabolites.

We aimed to investigate transfer of learning, whereby previously acquired skills impact new task learning. While it has been debated whether such transfer may yield positive, negative, or no effects on performance, very little is known about the underlying neural mechanisms, especially concerning the role of inhibitory (GABA) and excitatory (Glu) (measured as Glu + glutamine (Glx)) neurometabolites, as measured by magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS). Participants practiced a bimanual coordination task across four days. The Experimental group trained a task variant with the right hand moving faster than the left (Task A) for three days and then switched to the opposite variant (Task B) on Day4. The control group trained Task B across four days. MRS data were collected before, during, and after task performance on Day4 in the somatosensory (S1) and visual (MT/V5) cortex. Results showed that both groups improved performance consistently across three days. On Day4, the Experimental group experienced performance decline due to negative task transfer while the control group continuously improved. GABA and Glx concentrations obtained during task performance showed no significant group-level changes. However, individual Glx levels during task performance correlated with better (less negative) transfer performance. These findings provide a first window into the neurochemical mechanisms underlying task transfer.

Probing intrahemispheric interactions with a novel dual-site TMS setup.

OBJECTIVE: Using dual-site transcranial magnetic stimulation (dsTMS), the effective connectivity between the primary motor cortex (M1) and adjacent brain areas such as the dorsal premotor cortex (PMd) can be investigated. However, stimulating two brain regions in close proximity (e.g., ±2.3 cm for intrahemispheric PMd-M1) is subject to considerable spatial restrictions that potentially can be overcome by combining two standard figure-of-eight coils in a novel dsTMS setup. METHODS: After a technical evaluation of its induced electric fields, the dsTMS setup was tested in vivo (n = 23) by applying a short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI) protocol. Additionally, the intrahemispheric PMd-M1 interaction was probed. E-field modelling was performed using SimNIBS. RESULTS: The technical evaluation yielded no major alterations of the induced electric fields due to coil overlap. In vivo, the setup reliably elicited SICI. Investigating intrahemispheric PMd-M1 interactions was feasible (inter-stimulus interval 6 ms), resulting in modulation of M1 output. CONCLUSIONS: The presented dsTMS setup provides a novel way to stimulate two adjacent brain regions with fewer technical and spatial limitations than previous attempts. SIGNIFICANCE: This dsTMS setup enables more accurate and repeatable targeting of brain regions in close proximity and can facilitate innovation in the field of effective connectivity.

Frequency-dependent connectivity in large-scale resting-state brain networks during sleep.

Functional connectivity (FC) during sleep has been shown to break down as non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep deepens before returning to a state closer to wakefulness during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. However, the specific spatial and temporal signatures of these fluctuations in connectivity patterns remain poorly understood. This study aimed to investigate how frequency-dependent network-level FC fluctuates during nocturnal sleep in healthy young adults using high-density electroencephalography (hdEEG). Specifically, we examined source-localized FC in resting-state networks during NREM2, NREM3 and REM sleep (sleep stages scored using a semi-automatic procedure) in the first three sleep cycles of 29 participants. Our results showed that FC within and between all resting-state networks decreased from NREM2 to NREM3 sleep in multiple frequency bands and all sleep cycles. The data also highlighted a complex modulation of connectivity patterns during the transition to REM sleep whereby delta and sigma bands hosted a persistence of the connectivity breakdown in all networks. In contrast, a reconnection occurred in the default mode and the attentional networks in frequency bands characterizing their organization during wake (i.e., alpha and beta bands, respectively). Finally, all network pairs (except the visual network) showed higher gamma-band FC during REM sleep in cycle three compared to earlier sleep cycles. Altogether, our results unravel the spatial and temporal characteristics of the well-known breakdown in connectivity observed as NREM sleep deepens. They also illustrate a complex pattern of connectivity during REM sleep that is consistent with network- and frequency-specific breakdown and reconnection processes.

Targeted memory reactivation during post-learning sleep does not enhance motor memory consolidation in older adults.

Targeted memory reactivation (TMR) during sleep enhances memory consolidation in young adults by modulating electrophysiological markers of neuroplasticity. Interestingly, older adults exhibit deficits in motor memory consolidation, an impairment that has been linked to age-related degradations in the same sleep features sensitive to TMR. We hypothesised that TMR would enhance consolidation in older adults via the modulation of these markers. A total of 17 older participants were trained on a motor task involving two auditory-cued sequences. During a post-learning nap, two auditory cues were played: one associated to a learned (i.e., reactivated) sequence and one control. Performance during two delayed re-tests did not differ between reactivated and non-reactivated sequences. Moreover, both associated and control sounds modulated brain responses, yet there were no consistent differences between the auditory cue types. Our results collectively demonstrate that older adults do not benefit from specific reactivation of a motor memory trace by an associated auditory cue during post-learning sleep. Based on previous research, it is possible that auditory stimulation during post-learning sleep could have boosted motor memory consolidation in a non-specific manner.

Baseline GABA+ levels in areas associated with sensorimotor control predict initial and long-term motor learning progress.

Synaptic plasticity relies on the balance between excitation and inhibition in the brain. As the primary inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitters, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate (Glu), play critical roles in synaptic plasticity and learning. However, the role of these neurometabolites in motor learning is still unclear. Furthermore, it remains to be investigated which neurometabolite levels from the regions composing the sensorimotor network predict future learning outcome. Here, we studied the role of baseline neurometabolite levels in four task-related brain areas during different stages of motor skill learning under two different feedback (FB) conditions. Fifty-one healthy participants were trained on a bimanual motor task over 5 days while receiving either concurrent augmented visual FB (CA-VFB group, N = 25) or terminal intrinsic visual FB (TA-VFB group, N = 26) of their performance. Additionally, MRS-measured baseline GABA+ (GABA + macromolecules) and Glx (Glu + glutamine) levels were measured in the primary motor cortex (M1), primary somatosensory cortex (S1), dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), and medial temporal cortex (MT/V5). Behaviorally, our results revealed that the CA-VFB group outperformed the TA-VFB group during task performance in the presence of augmented VFB, while the TA-VFB group outperformed the CA-VFB group in the absence of augmented FB. Moreover, baseline M1 GABA+ levels positively predicted and DLPFC GABA+ levels negatively predicted both initial and long-term motor learning progress in the TA-VFB group. In contrast, baseline S1 GABA+ levels positively predicted initial and long-term motor learning progress in the CA-VFB group. Glx levels did not predict learning progress. Together, these findings suggest that baseline GABA+ levels predict motor learning capability, yet depending on the FB training conditions afforded to the participants.

White matter and neurochemical mechanisms underlying age-related differences in motor processing speed.

Aging is associated with changes in the central nervous system and leads to reduced life quality. Here, we investigated the age-related differences in the CNS underlying motor performance deficits using magnetic resonance spectroscopy and diffusion MRI. MRS measured N-acetyl aspartate (NAA), choline (Cho), and creatine (Cr) concentrations in the sensorimotor and occipital cortex, whereas dMRI quantified apparent fiber density (FD) in the same voxels to evaluate white matter microstructural organization. We found that aging was associated with increased reaction time and reduced FD and NAA concentration in the sensorimotor voxel. Both FD and NAA mediated the association between age and reaction time. The NAA concentration was found to mediate the association between age and FD in the sensorimotor voxel. We propose that the age-related decrease in NAA concentration may result in reduced axonal fiber density in the sensorimotor cortex which may ultimately account for the response slowness of older participants.

Neurological soft signs are associated with reduced medial-lateral postural control in adolescent athletes.

INTRODUCTION: Neurological soft signs (NSS) are minor deviations from the norm in motor performance that are commonly assessed using neurological examinations. NSS may be of clinical relevance for evaluating the developmental status of adolescents. Here we investigate whether quantitative force plate measures may add relevant information to observer-based neurological examinations. METHODS: Male adolescent athletes (n = 141) aged 13-16 years from three European sites underwent a neurological examination including 28 tests grouped into six functional clusters. The performance of tests and functional clusters was rated as optimal/non-optimal resulting in NSS+/NSS- groups and a continuous total NSS score. Participants performed a postural control task on a Balance Tracking System measured as path length, root mean square and sway area. ANCOVAs were applied to test for group differences in postural control between the NSS+ and NSS- group, and between optimal/non-optimal performance on a cluster- and test-level. Moreover, we tested for correlations between the total NSS score and postural control variables. RESULTS: There was no significant overall difference between the NSS+ and NSS- group in postural control. However, non-optimal performing participants in the diadochokinesis test swayed significantly more in the medial-lateral direction than optimal performing participants. Moreover, a lower total NSS score was associated with reduced postural control in the medial-lateral direction. CONCLUSION: Our findings demonstrate that NSS are related to postural control in adolescent athletes. Thus, force plate measures may add a quantitative, objective measurement of postural control to observer-based qualitative assessments, and thus, may complement clinical testing.

Dual-site TMS as a tool to probe effective interactions within the motor network: a review.

Dual-site transcranial magnetic stimulation (ds-TMS) is well suited to investigate the causal effect of distant brain regions on the primary motor cortex, both at rest and during motor performance and learning. However, given the broad set of stimulation parameters, clarity about which parameters are most effective for identifying particular interactions is lacking. Here, evidence describing inter- and intra-hemispheric interactions during rest and in the context of motor tasks is reviewed. Our aims are threefold: (1) provide a detailed overview of ds-TMS literature regarding inter- and intra-hemispheric connectivity; (2) describe the applicability and contributions of these interactions to motor control, and; (3) discuss the practical implications and future directions. Of the 3659 studies screened, 109 were included and discussed. Overall, there is remarkable variability in the experimental context for assessing ds-TMS interactions, as well as in the use and reporting of stimulation parameters, hindering a quantitative comparison of results across studies. Further studies examining ds-TMS interactions in a systematic manner, and in which all critical parameters are carefully reported, are needed.

Organization of neurochemical interactions in young and older brains as revealed with a network approach: Evidence from proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS).

Aging is associated with alterations in the brain including structural and metabolic changes. Previous research has focused on neurometabolite level differences associated to age in a variety of brain regions, but the relationship among metabolites across the brain has been much less studied. Investigating these relationships can reveal underlying neurometabolic processes, their interdependency, and their progress throughout the lifespan. Using 1H-MRS, we investigated the relationship among metabolite concentrations of N-acetylaspartate (NAA), creatine (Cr), choline (Cho), myo-Inositol (mIns) and glutamate-glutamine complex (Glx) in seven voxel locations, i.e., bilateral sensorimotor cortex, bilateral striatum, pre-supplementary motor area, right inferior frontal gyrus and occipital cortex. These measurements were performed on 59 human participants divided in two age groups: young adults (YA: 23.2 ± 4.3; 18-34 years) and older adults (OA: 67.5 ± 3.9; 61-74 years). Our results showed age-related differences in NAA, Cho, and mIns across brain regions, suggesting the presence of neurodegeneration and altered gliosis. Moreover, associative patterns among NAA, Cho and Cr were observed across the selected brain regions, which differed between young and older adults. Whereas most of metabolite concentrations were inhomogeneous across different brain regions, Cho levels were shown to be strongly related across brain regions in both age groups. Finally, we found metabolic associations between homologous brain regions (SM1 and striatum) in the OA group, with NAA showing a significant correlation between bilateral sensorimotor cortices (SM1) and mIns levels being correlated between the bilateral striata. We posit that a network perspective provides important insights regarding the potential interactions among neurochemicals underlying metabolic processes at a local and global level and their relationship with aging.

Neurological soft signs in adolescents are associated with brain structure.

Neurological soft signs (NSS) are minor deviations in motor performance. During childhood and adolescence, NSS are examined for functional motor phenotyping to describe development, to screen for comorbidities, and to identify developmental vulnerabilities. Here, we investigate underlying brain structure alterations in association with NSS in physically trained adolescents. Male adolescent athletes (n = 136, 13-16 years) underwent a standardized neurological examination including 28 tests grouped into 6 functional clusters. Non-optimal performance in at least 1 cluster was rated as NSS (NSS+ group). Participants underwent T1- and diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging. Cortical volume, thickness, and local gyrification were calculated using Freesurfer. Measures of white matter microstructure (Free-water (FW), FW-corrected fractional anisotropy (FAt), axial and radial diffusivity (ADt, RDt)) were calculated using tract-based spatial statistics. General linear models with age and handedness as covariates were applied to assess differences between NSS+ and NSS- group. We found higher gyrification in a large cluster spanning the left superior frontal and parietal areas, and widespread lower FAt and higher RDt compared with the NSS- group. This study shows that NSS in adolescents are associated with brain structure alterations. Underlying mechanisms may include alterations in synaptic pruning and axon myelination, which are hallmark processes of brain maturation.

Multimodal and multidomain lesion network mapping enhances prediction of sensorimotor behavior in stroke patients.

Beyond the characteristics of a brain lesion, such as its etiology, size or location, lesion network mapping (LNM) has shown that similar symptoms after a lesion reflects similar dis-connectivity patterns, thereby linking symptoms to brain networks. Here, we extend LNM by using a multimodal strategy, combining functional and structural networks from 1000 healthy participants in the Human Connectome Project. We apply multimodal LNM to a cohort of 54 stroke patients with the aim of predicting sensorimotor behavior, as assessed through a combination of motor and sensory tests. Results are two-fold. First, multimodal LNM reveals that the functional modality contributes more than the structural one in the prediction of sensorimotor behavior. Second, when looking at each modality individually, the performance of the structural networks strongly depended on whether sensorimotor performance was corrected for lesion size, thereby eliminating the effect that larger lesions generally produce more severe sensorimotor impairment. In contrast, functional networks provided similar performance regardless of whether or not the effect of lesion size was removed. Overall, these results support the extension of LNM to its multimodal form, highlighting the synergistic and additive nature of different types of network modalities, and their corresponding influence on behavioral performance after brain injury.

No evidence for a difference in lateralization and distinctiveness level of transcranial magnetic stimulation-derived cortical motor representations over the adult lifespan.

This study aimed to investigate the presence and patterns of age-related differences in TMS-based measures of lateralization and distinctiveness of the cortical motor representations of two different hand muscles. In a sample of seventy-three right-handed healthy participants over the adult lifespan, the first dorsal interosseus (FDI) and abductor digiti minimi (ADM) cortical motor representations of both hemispheres were acquired using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). In addition, dexterity and maximum force levels were measured. Lateralization quotients were calculated for homolog behavioral and TMS measures, whereas the distinctiveness between the FDI and ADM representation within one hemisphere was quantified by the center of gravity (CoG) distance and cosine similarity. The presence and patterns of age-related changes were examined using linear, polynomial, and piecewise linear regression. No age-related differences could be identified for the lateralization quotient of behavior or cortical motor representations of both intrinsic hand muscles. Furthermore, no evidence for a change in the distinctiveness of the FDI and ADM representation with advancing age was found. In conclusion this work showed that lateralization and distinctiveness of cortical motor representations, as determined by means of TMS-based measures, remain stable over the adult lifespan.

Bridging cognition and action: executive functioning mediates the relationship between white matter fiber density and complex motor abilities in older adults.

Aging may be associated with motor decline that is attributed to deteriorating white matter microstructure of the corpus callosum (CC), among other brain-related factors. Similar to motor functioning, executive functioning (EF) typically declines during aging, with age-associated changes in EF likewise being linked to altered white matter connectivity in the CC. Given that both motor and executive functions rely on white matter connectivity via the CC, and that bimanual control is thought to rely on EF, the question arises whether EF can at least party account for the proposed link between CC-connectivity and motor control in older adults. To address this, diffusion magnetic resonance imaging data were obtained from 84 older adults. A fiber-specific approach was used to obtain fiber density (FD), fiber cross-section (FC), and a combination of both metrics in eight transcallosal white matter tracts. Motor control was assessed using a bimanual coordination task. EF was determined by a domain-general latent EF-factor extracted from multiple EF tasks, based on a comprehensive test battery. FD of transcallosal prefrontal fibers was associated with cognitive and motor performance. EF partly accounted for the relationship between FD of prefrontal transcallosal pathways and motor control. Our results underscore the multidimensional interrelations between callosal white matter connectivity (especially in prefrontal brain regions), EF across multiple domains, and motor control in the older population. They also highlight the importance of considering EF when investigating brain-motor behavior associations in older adults.

The interaction between endogenous GABA, functional connectivity, and behavioral flexibility is critically altered with advanced age.

The flexible adjustment of ongoing behavior challenges the nervous system's dynamic control mechanisms and has shown to be specifically susceptible to age-related decline. Previous work links endogenous gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) with behavioral efficiency across perceptual and cognitive domains, with potentially the strongest impact on those behaviors that require a high level of dynamic control. Our analysis integrated behavior and modulation of interhemispheric phase-based connectivity during dynamic motor-state transitions with endogenous GABA concentration in adult human volunteers. We provide converging evidence for age-related differences in the preferred state of endogenous GABA concentration for more flexible behavior. We suggest that the increased interhemispheric connectivity observed in the older participants represents a compensatory neural mechanism caused by phase-entrainment in homotopic motor cortices. This mechanism appears to be most relevant in the presence of a less optimal tuning of the inhibitory tone as observed during healthy aging to uphold the required flexibility of behavioral action. Future work needs to validate the relevance of this interplay between neural connectivity and GABAergic inhibition for other domains of flexible human behavior.

Effects of beta-band and gamma-band rhythmic stimulation on motor inhibition.

To investigate whether beta oscillations are causally related to motor inhibition, thirty-six participants underwent two concurrent transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) and electroencephalography (EEG) sessions during which either beta (20 Hz) or gamma (70 Hz) stimulation was applied while participants performed a stop-signal task. In addition, we acquired magnetic resonance images to simulate the electric field during tACS. 20 Hz stimulation targeted at the pre-supplementary motor area enhanced inhibition and increased beta oscillatory power around the time of the stop-signal in trials directly following stimulation. The increase in inhibition on stop trials followed a dose-response relationship with the strength of the individually simulated electric field. Computational modeling revealed that 20 and 70 Hz stimulation had opposite effects on the braking process. These results highlight that the effects of tACS are state-dependent and demonstrate that fronto-central beta activity is causally related to successful motor inhibition, supporting its use as a functional biomarker.

Normal aging affects unconstrained three-dimensional reaching against gravity with reduced vertical precision and increased co-contraction: a pilot study.

Reaching for an object in space forms the basis for many activities of daily living and is important in rehabilitation after stroke and in other neurological and orthopedic conditions. It has been the object of motor control and neuroscience research for over a century, but studies often constrain movement to eliminate the effect of gravity or reduce the degrees of freedom. In some studies, aging has been shown to reduce target accuracy, with a mechanism suggested to be impaired corrective movements. We sought to explore how such changes in accuracy relate to changes in finger, shoulder and elbow movements during performance of reaching movements with the normal effects of gravity, unconstrained hand movement, and stable target locations. Three-dimensional kinematic data and electromyography were collected in 14 young (25 ± 6 years) and 10 older adults (68 ± 3 years) during second-long reaches to 3 targets aligned vertically in front of the participants. Older adults took longer to initiate a movement than the young adults and were more variable and inaccurate in their initial and final movements. Target height had greater effect on trajectory curvature variability in older than young adults, with angle variability relative to target position being greater in older adults around the time of peak speed. There were significant age-related differences in use of the multiple degrees of freedom of the upper extremity, with less variability in shoulder abduction in the older group. Muscle activation patterns were similar, except for a higher biceps-triceps co-contraction and tonic levels of some proximal muscle activation. These results show an age-related deficit in the motor planning and online correction of reaching movements against a predictable force (i.e., gravity) when it is not compensated by mechanical support.

Age-Related Differences of Frequency-Dependent Functional Connectivity in Brain Networks and Their Link to Motor Performance.

Background: Aging affects the brain at the anatomical and functional levels, resulting in a decline in motor and cognitive performance. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies documented lower connectivity within brain networks and higher connectivity between them, for older as compared with young adults. However, it is still unclear whether the reduced segregation between networks, as observed with fMRI, has neurophysiological underpinnings. Methods: We collected high-density electroencephalography (hdEEG) data in 24 young and 24 older adults at rest. Bimanual coordination performance was also measured in the same participants, using a computerized test. Using the hdEEG data, we reconstructed oscillatory power and functional connectivity for six large-scale brain networks, in delta, theta, alpha, beta and gamma frequency bands. We evaluated age-related differences in network power and connectivity between young and older participants, and their possible relationships with bimanual coordination performance. Results: We observed that the level of network segregation generally decreased with age, in line with fMRI findings. However, there was a relatively strong dependence on the frequency band and the brain network being considered. EEG connectivity in the sensorimotor network predicted motor performance differences across older individuals, particularly when neural oscillations in the beta frequency band were considered. Discussion: Our study provides electrophysiological evidence in support of the "de-differentiation hypothesis" for the aging brain, and for the existence of a clear link between the strength of EEG connectivity at rest and motor performance.

The role of MRS-assessed GABA in human behavioral performance.

Understanding the neurophysiological mechanisms that drive human behavior has been a long-standing focus of cognitive neuroscience. One well-known neuro-metabolite involved in the creation of optimal behavioral repertoires is GABA, the main inhibitory neurochemical in the human brain. Converging evidence from both animal and human studies indicates that individual variations in GABAergic function are associated with behavioral performance. In humans, one increasingly used in vivo approach to measuring GABA levels is through Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS). However, the implications of MRS measures of GABA for behavior remain poorly understood. In this respect, it is yet to be determined how GABA levels within distinct task-related brain regions of interest account for differences in behavioral performance. This review summarizes findings from cross-sectional studies that determined baseline MRS-assessed GABA levels and examined their associations with performance on various behaviors representing the perceptual, motor and cognitive domains, with a particular focus on healthy participants across the lifespan. Overall, the results indicate that MRS-assessed GABA levels play a pivotal role in various domains of behavior. Even though some converging patterns emerge, it is challenging to draw comprehensive conclusions due to differences in behavioral task paradigms, targeted brain regions of interest, implemented MRS techniques and reference compounds used. Across all studies, the effects of GABA levels on behavioral performance point to generic and partially independent functions that refer to distinctiveness, interference suppression and cognitive flexibility. On one hand, higher baseline GABA levels may support the distinctiveness of neural representations during task performance and better coping with interference and suppression of preferred response tendencies. On the other hand, lower baseline GABA levels may support a reduction of inhibition, leading to higher cognitive flexibility. These effects are task-dependent and appear to be mediated by age. Nonetheless, additional studies using emerging advanced methods are required to further clarify the role of MRS-assessed GABA in behavioral performance.

Task-Related Modulation of Sensorimotor GABA+ Levels in Association with Brain Activity and Motor Performance: A Multimodal MRS-fMRI Study in Young and Older Adults.

Recent studies suggest an important role of the principal inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA for motor performance in the context of aging. Nonetheless, as previous magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) studies primarily reported resting-state GABA levels, much less is known about transient changes in GABA levels during motor task performance and how these relate to behavior and brain activity patterns. Therefore, we investigated GABA+ levels of left primary sensorimotor cortex (SM1) acquired before, during, and after execution of a unimanual/bimanual action selection task in 30 (human) young adults (YA; age 24.5 ± 4.1, 15 male) and 30 older adults (OA; age 67.8 ± 4.9, 14 male). In addition to task-related MRS data, task-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data were acquired. Behavioral results indicated lower motor performance in OA as opposed to YA, particularly in complex task conditions. MRS results demonstrated lower GABA+ levels in OA as compared with YA. Furthermore, a transient task-related decrease of GABA+ levels was observed, regardless of age. Notably, this task-induced modulation of GABA+ levels was linked to task-related brain activity patterns in SM1 such that a more profound task-induced instantaneous lowering of GABA+ was related to higher SM1 activity. Additionally, higher brain activity was related to better performance in the bimanual conditions, despite some age-related differences. Finally, the modulatory capacity of GABA+ was positively related to motor performance in OA but not YA. Together, these results underscore the importance of transient dynamical changes in neurochemical content for brain function and behavior, particularly in the context of aging.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Emerging evidence designates an important role to regional GABA levels in motor control, especially in the context of aging. However, it remains unclear whether changes in GABA levels emerge when executing a motor task and how these changes relate to brain activity patterns and performance. Here, we identified a transient decrease of sensorimotor GABA+ levels during performance of an action selection task across young adults (YA) and older adults (OA). Interestingly, whereas a more profound GABA+ modulation related to higher brain activity across age groups, its association with motor performance differed across age groups. Within OA, our results highlighted a functional merit of a task-related release from inhibitory tone, i.e. lowering regional GABA+ levels was associated with task-relevant brain activity.

REPIMPACT - a prospective longitudinal multisite study on the effects of repetitive head impacts in youth soccer.

Repetitive head impacts (RHI) are common in youth athletes participating in contact sports. RHI differ from concussions; they are considered hits to the head that usually do not result in acute symptoms and are therefore also referred to as "subconcussive" head impacts. RHI occur e.g., when heading the ball or during contact with another player. Evidence suggests that exposure to RHI may have cumulative effects on brain structure and function. However, little is known about brain alterations associated with RHI, or about the risk factors that may lead to clinical or behavioral sequelae. REPIMPACT is a prospective longitudinal study of competitive youth soccer players and non-contact sport controls aged 14 to 16 years. The study aims to characterize consequences of exposure to RHI with regard to behavior (i.e., cognition, and motor function), clinical sequelae (i.e., psychiatric and neurological symptoms), brain structure, function, diffusion and biochemistry, as well as blood- and saliva-derived measures of molecular processes associated with exposure to RHI (e.g., circulating microRNAs, neuroproteins and cytokines). Here we present the structure of the REPIMPACT Consortium which consists of six teams of clinicians and scientists in six countries. We further provide detailed information on the specific aims and the design of the REPIMPACT study. The manuscript also describes the progress made in the study thus far. Finally, we discuss important challenges and approaches taken to overcome these challenges.